Zhuge Liang’s The Way of the General: 12 Principles of Leadership

Zhuge Liang’s The Way of the General has received comparatively little attention in the English-speaking world.  Zhuge Liang first caught my attention as a writer in the introduction to Thomas Cleary’s excellent edition of the Art of War (made more valuable by the commentaries it contains by subsequent strategists).  Of all of the strategic classics, Sun Tzu’s Art of War has always stood out for me as the incomparable embodiment of the spirit of strategic understanding, alongside the Tao Teh Ching with which it should always be read.  I am ready to add a third work to the list. 

“In stillness be as quiet as a fish in the deep, in action be as swift as an otter.”

Zhuge Liang’s biography is far too hefty a project to tackle here.  Polymath, itinerant scholar, strategist, alliance-builder, regent, inventor, the list of the man’s talents seems endless.  That they were buttressed by what could be considered a soft touch and the humility of an open mind gives Zhuge Liang a lasting charm that contrasts well with the grasping hard-headedness that has led many military and political strategists to unfortunate fates.  And yet, the man was revered as one of the most successful politicians and strategists of the Three Kingdoms Period, one of the most tumultuous eras in Chinese history.

The Taoist themes in Zhuge Liang’s thought are timeless, translating very well to any area of leadership in any century.  Though he was a skilled military tactician, The Way of the General gives only the smallest hints as to battlefield tactics and strategy.  “Press enemies and contain them; lure and entice them. Confuse them and seize them; be humble to make them proud. Be familiar yet distant; weaken them by lending strength.”  And perhaps that is the point.  With effective leadership, tactics come easily.  Or, as he might say, “First organise the inner, then organise the outer.  First organise yourself, then organise others.”

A few of the strongest themes from The Way of the General:



1. The leaders must know everything about those who serve under them; hold no order of people in contempt.

“An ancient document says: “Those who are contemptuous of cultured people have no way to win people’s hearts completely; those who are contemptuous of common people have no way to get people to work as hard as they can.

“[The enlightened ruler] worries not about subordinates not knowing superiors, but about superiors not knowing subordinates. He worries not about the lower classes not knowing the upper classes, but about the upper classes not knowing the lower classes.

“Thus when you are alert to what the people in the lower echelons have to say, and take it into consideration, so that your plan include the rank and file, then all people are your eyes and a multitude of voices helps your ears.”



2. Find out the talents of your subordinates and give them the opportunity to make them count.

Appropriate use of talent is one of Zhuge’s strongest themes.  He suggests organising an army by the talents of the soldiers rather than by a preconceived structure, forming elite units for melee combat, charges, speed, horse archery, marksmanship and so on, thus giving everyone scope to use their strengths in battle.  Zhuge Liang also provides guidelines for finding able leaders at various levels.

“One who is direct yet circumspect, who is brave and can fight, is the leader of a thousand men.

“One of martial bearing and fierceness of heart, who knows the hardships of others and spares people from hunger and cold, is the leader of ten thousand men.

“One who associates with the wise and promotes the able, who is careful of how he spends each day, who is sincere, trustworthy, and magnanimous, and who is guarded in times of order as well as times of disturbance, is the leader of a hundred thousand men.

“One whose humanitarian care extends to all under his command, whose trustworthiness and justice win the allegiance of neighboring nations, who understands the signs of the sky above, the patterns of the earth below, and the affairs of humanity in between, and who regards all people as his family, is a world-class leader, one who cannot be opposed.”




3. Win the people over by righteousness and care for their needs.

This one seems almost strange today, when we almost without exception expect our leaders to be looking out for number one and any show of sympathy with the people to be little more than convention. 

“Give security to those in danger; gladden those in fear. If people oppose you, take what they say to heart; if people have grudges, let them express themselves.

“Restrain the strong, sustain the weak.

“Good generals of ancient times took care of their people as one might take care of a beloved child. When there was difficulty they would face it first themselves, and when something was achieved they would defer to others. They would tearfully console the wounded and sorrowfully mourn the dead. They would sacrifice themselves to feed the hungry and remove their own garments to clothe the cold. They honored the wise and provided for their living; they rewarded and encouraged the brave. If generals can be like this, they can take over anywhere they go.”




4. Share your subordinates’ conditions.

This was more than words for Zhuge Liang, whose will reflects that although he gained some lands for the support of his family, he himself lived and was fed and clothed little better than the soldiers.  If the leader lives in luxury, the subordinates will have little affection for him; he will be the fat cat playing with their lives and fortunes rather than a respected comrade.  Zhuge’s insistence that a general not eat before his soldiers and that he share their risks is particularly apt today in the world of unearned bonuses and golden parachutes for certain classes of people and pay cuts and layoffs for those less well-off.

“Do not sit down before the soldiers sit; do not eat before the soldiers eat.

“Bear the same cold and heat the soldiers do; share their toil as well as their case.

“Experience sweetness and bitterness just as the soldiers do; take the same risks that they do.

“Then the soldiers will exert themselves to the utmost, and it will be possible to destroy enemies.”

“According to the code of generalship, generals do not say they are thirsty before the soldiers have drawn from the well; generals do not say they are hungry before the soldiers’ food is cooked; generals do not say they are cold before the soldiers’ fire are kindled; generals do not say they are hot before the soldiers’ canopies are drawn. Generals do not use fans in summer, do not wear leather (or fur) in winter, do not use umbrella in the rain. They do as everyone does.”




5. Exercise vigilance, expecting every condition to contain the seeds of its opposite, according to the Tao.

In Taoism, every benefit may contain the seeds of future harm.  Lao Tzu’s comments on overextension leading to decay come to mind here, as do his comments about the ease of dealing with the seed compared with the grown plant.  It is no good achieving victory in a way that embitters a population you have to deal with.  It is no good passing laws to maintain order that tarnish the reputation of the state and lead to further disorder.  It is no good posting record profits if your long-term strategy is unsound.

“Danger arises in safety, destruction arises in survival. Harm arises in advantage, chaos arises in order.”




6. Punishment and reward must be absolutely consistent and never subject to personal motives.

The consistency of rewards and punishments, for Zhuge as for Mozi, should be clear and absolutely without personal bias, since this is the only way to encourage achievement and cultivate order.

“If they get angry without discernible reason, their authority will not be effective. If their rewards and punishments are not clear, the lower echelons will not be encouraged to achieve.

“If politics are inappropriate, orders will not be obeyed. If private affairs are carried over into public life, people will be of two minds.

“If rewards are given for no reason, those who have worked hard in public service will be resentful; if penalties are applied arbitrary, upright people will be bitter.”




7. In order to solve a problem or improve organisation, start at the top.

Everything starts with the leader, who will get exactly the organisation he deserves.  Every big problem starts at the top.  If the great are not properly ordered, neither will their subordinates be.

“First organize the near at hand, then organize the far removed. First organize the inner, then organize the outer. First organize the basic, then organize the derivative. First organize the strong, then organize the weak. First organize the great, then organize the small. First organize yourself, then organize others.”




8. Educate subordinates by your example.

“A policy of instruction and direction means those above educate those below, not saying anything that is unlawful and not doing anything that is immoral, for what is done by those above is observed by those below.”



9. For important jobs, seek out hidden talent in obscure places.

Zhuge Liang’s own beginnings as an itinerant scholar are reflected in the value he places on people of obscure origins who may not have had a chance to show their skills.  Most human potential is wasted; being able to find it and use it correctly is the key skill of exceptional leaders.

“Straight trees are found in remote forests; upright people come from the humble masses. Therefore when rulers are going to make appointments they need to look in obscure places.

“Sometimes there are disenfranchised people with something of value in them; sometimes there are people with extraordinary talent who go unrecognized. Sometimes there are paragons of virtue who are not promoted by their hometown; sometimes there are people who live in obscurity on purpose.”

“Sometimes there are people who are dutiful and righteous for purely philosophical or religious reasons. Sometimes there are loyal people who are straightforward with rulers but are slandered by cliques. Ancient kings are known to have hired unknowns and nobodies, finding in them the human qualities whereby they were able to bring peace.”




10. Lighten your subordinates’ burdens, be concerned for their welfare and give them a chance to thrive.

“Encourage people in productive work, don’t deprive them of their time. Lighten their taxes, don’t exhaust their resources. In this way the country is made wealthy and families secure.”




11. Reward generously.

“ [A] General should not be stingy, for if they are stingy they will not reward the trustworthy, and if they do not reward the trustworthy, the soldiers will not be dedicated., the armed forces are ineffective, and if the armed forces are ineffective, the nation is empty. When the nation is empty, its opponents are full.”




12. To Avoid:

Zhuge Liang spends a great deal of time listing everything that leaders should avoid, and that righteous leaders should punish in their officials.  His list of the eight evils of generals is particularly instructive.  Inability to formulate strategy in a moral way is the worst evil, the inability to delegate authority to men of peace in peacetime the second worst.  The inability to foresee and prevent future dangers through wise policy features twice on the list.  A second list deals with decadence in generals, beginning with greed.

Zhuge Liang also emphasises the importance of dismissing corrupt and unjust officials as well as those whose excessive meddling and bureaucracy causes the people hardship and confusion.




It is notable that Zhuge Liang remains a key standard by which officials, and especially Premiers, are still measured in China.  Wen Jiabao, sincerely or not, very much played up to this image and in so doing probably did more than anyone else to keep the Party-State stable. 

If there is one work on leadership that everyone should read, this is it.  It is much shorter and easier to read than the Art of War, appropriately demanding and very clear, and despite the title, it translates quite easily into non-military affairs, spending little time on concerns exclusive to generalship. 



All quotations from Kong Ming's Archives, translation by Thomas Cleary